This course offers over 90 carefully composed examples that intend to teach the fundamentals of the C++ programming language to any beginner.

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If you’re looking to sharpen up your C++ programming skills, then you’re in the right place. You will start with learning about dynamic memory allocation, how to create classes, and constructors. 

In the latter half of the course, inheritance, functions, I/O, exception handling, and more. Throughout the course, you will study over 90 carefully designed examples aimed to enhance your understanding of the C++ language.  

By the time you finish this course, you will be able to use more advanced functionality in your C++ programs.

C++ Programming for Experienced Engineers

C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in 1979. It was planned as an extension of the C language to help improve program organization. In fact, it was originally called “C with Classes”. It had features like classes, inheritance, strong type-checking and default values for function arguments.

In 1983, "C with Classes" was renamed to "C++". New features like virtual functions, function overloading, operator overloading, references, constants, type-safe free-store memory allocation (new/delete), improved type checking, and // style comments.

Once it started becoming popular amongst programmers a need for its standardization was felt. The standardization of C++ is done by an ISO (International Organization for Standardization) working group known as JTC1/SC22/WG21. The first standard was released in 1998 and came to be known as C++98. 

In 2003, it published a new version of the C++ standard, which essentially fixed problems identified in C++98.

The next major revision of the standard was released in 2011 and is known as C++11. It contained many additions to both the core language and the standard library.

In 2014, C++14 was released, which had bug fixes for C++11 and a few small improvements. Similarly, the issues in C++14 were resolved in 2017 after the release of standard C++17.

In 2021, when creating this course, the latest version is C++20 which was released last year, in 2020. 



C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in 1979. It was planned as an extension of the C language to help improve program organization. In fact, it was originally called “C with Classes”. It had features like classes, inheritance, strong type-checking and default values for function arguments.
In 1983, “C with Classes” was renamed to “C++”. New features like virtual functions, function overloading, operator overloading, references, constants, type-safe free-store memory allocation (new/delete), improved type checking, and // style comments.
Once it started becoming popular amongst programmers a need for its standardization was felt. The standardization of C++ is done by an ISO (International Organization for Standardization) working group known as JTC1/SC22/WG21. The first standard was released in 1998 and came to be known as C++98.
In 2003, it published a new version of the C++ standard, which essentially fixed problems identified in C++98.
The next major revision of the standard was released in 2011 and is known as C++11. It contained many additions to both the core language and the standard library.
In 2014, C++14 was released, which had bug fixes for C++11 and a few small improvements. Similarly, the issues in C++14 were resolved in 2017 after the release of standard C++17.
In 2021, when creating this course, the latest version is C++20 which was released last year, in 2020.

Are there multiple versions of the C++ language? Which is the latest version?

Are there multiple versions of the C++ language? Which is the latest version?

You can build the program using either the **command-line** or an **Integrated Development Environment (IDE)**.
 
>IDEs internally make use of the same preprocessor, compiler, assembler, etc., that are used on the command-line. 

The only thing is their usage remains hidden from the developer. For example, if we use the NetBeans IDE, it would internally use the same g++ compiler that is used for building the program on the command-line.

You can build the program using either the command-line or an Integrated Development Environment (IDE).
<blockquote>
IDEs internally make use of the same preprocessor, compiler, assembler, etc., that are used on the command-line.
</blockquote>
The only thing is their usage remains hidden from the developer. For example, if we use the NetBeans IDE, it would internally use the same g++ compiler that is used for building the program on the command-line.

What are the different ways to build a C++ program?

What are the different ways to build a C++ program?

Though C++ programs can be built using the command-line, using an Integrated Development Environment is preferred for the following reasons:

1. All the program building steps like preprocessing, compilation, assembling, linking and execution can happen at the press of a button (for example, by using the F6 function key in NetBeans IDE).

2. IDE helps manage all the project files through a “Project” or a “Solution Explorer” window. This is very useful for large projects that have multiple files in them.

3. IDE provides easy navigation through the code stored in multiple files. For example, we can quickly find out what different places in our code a particular function is being called from. 

4. IDE displays line numbers beside each line of code.

5. IDE provides syntax highlighting, i.e., it shows keywords, functions, class names, etc. in different colors making them stand out visually.

6. IDE provides a code folding feature, where a piece of code can be collapsed/expanded as needed. This is helpful in managing large programs.

7. IDE lets us set bookmarks in code to help us navigate to them quickly from other parts of the program.

8. IDE offers the Intellisense feature, which helps write code by giving suggestions. For example, when we type an object name it provides a list of functions that can be called using that object. Similarly, once we choose the function it provides the list of arguments that we need to pass to this function.

9. Once the compiler points out the errors, IDE provides suggestions as to how the error can be rectified.

10. For routine program statements like a for loop, an if-else structure, etc., IDE provides readymade code blocks, thereby saving some time.

11. IDE lets us add and manage non-programming resources like Icons, Bitmaps, Menus, Toolbars, etc.

12. IDE provides vital statistics like build time and execution time. This can help us rate the performance of our program.

13. IDE provides a powerful editor that can rename token names throughout the project code in an efficient manner.

14. IDE provides visual debugging. We can see the break points that have been set, see the single-stepping progress, and watch values of variables/expressions.

Though C++ programs can be built using the command-line, using an Integrated Development Environment is preferred for the following reasons:
<ol>
<li>
All the program building steps like preprocessing, compilation, assembling, linking and execution can happen at the press of a button (for example, by using the F6 function key in NetBeans IDE).
</li>
<li>
IDE helps manage all the project files through a “Project” or a “Solution Explorer” window. This is very useful for large projects that have multiple files in them.
</li>
<li>
IDE provides easy navigation through the code stored in multiple files. For example, we can quickly find out what different places in our code a particular function is being called from.
</li>
<li>
IDE displays line numbers beside each line of code.
</li>
<li>
IDE provides syntax highlighting, i.e., it shows keywords, functions, class names, etc. in different colors making them stand out visually.
</li>
<li>
IDE provides a code folding feature, where a piece of code can be collapsed/expanded as needed. This is helpful in managing large programs.
</li>
<li>
IDE lets us set bookmarks in code to help us navigate to them quickly from other parts of the program.
</li>
<li>
IDE offers the Intellisense feature, which helps write code by giving suggestions. For example, when we type an object name it provides a list of functions that can be called using that object. Similarly, once we choose the function it provides the list of arguments that we need to pass to this function.
</li>
<li>
Once the compiler points out the errors, IDE provides suggestions as to how the error can be rectified.
</li>
<li>
For routine program statements like a for loop, an if-else structure, etc., IDE provides readymade code blocks, thereby saving some time.
</li>
<li>
IDE lets us add and manage non-programming resources like Icons, Bitmaps, Menus, Toolbars, etc.
</li>
<li>
IDE provides vital statistics like build time and execution time. This can help us rate the performance of our program.
</li>
<li>
IDE provides a powerful editor that can rename token names throughout the project code in an efficient manner.
</li>
<li>
IDE provides visual debugging. We can see the break points that have been set, see the single-stepping progress, and watch values of variables/expressions.
</li>
</ol>

Are there any benefits to using an IDE for program development?

Are there any benefits to using an IDE for program development?

Code portability means _a given C++ program once compiled should work under all environments_. For example, a C++ program compiled under the _Windows_ environment should work under _Linux_, too. But this does not happen, since the layout of the executable code under Windows is different from the layout under Linux. To be more specific, _Windows executables use a **Portable Executable (PE)** file format_, whereas _Linux executables use **Executable and Linkable Format (ELF)**_.

> Thus, in C++ code portability cannot be achieved at the executable code level.

Can it be achieved at the source code level? Can a program created in **Visual Studio** be compiled using the **g++ compiler**?

Yes, it can be done. You need to ensure that “Use precompiled headers” is unchecked in the Visual Studio configuration to ensure source code portability.


Code portability means a given C++ program once compiled should work under all environments. For example, a C++ program compiled under the Windows environment should work under Linux, too. But this does not happen, since the layout of the executable code under Windows is different from the layout under Linux. To be more specific, Windows executables use a Portable Executable (PE) file format, whereas Linux executables use Executable and Linkable Format (ELF).
<blockquote>
Thus, in C++ code portability cannot be achieved at the executable code level.
</blockquote>
Can it be achieved at the source code level? Can a program created in Visual Studio be compiled using the g++ compiler?
Yes, it can be done. You need to ensure that “Use precompiled headers” is unchecked in the Visual Studio configuration to ensure source code portability.

What is code portability? Are C++ programs created in **Visual Studio** portable? If not, how would you rectify that?

What is code portability? Are C++ programs created in Visual Studio portable? If not, how would you rectify that?

This chapter will help you with the new developments in the C++ language over the years.

Getting Off the Ground

Starters

Basic C++ Examples

Class Organization Examples

Class Constructor Examples

Classes and Objects Examples

More Classes and Objects Examples

Function Examples

Function Overloading Examples

Operator Overloading Examples

Free Store Examples

Inheritance Examples

Virtual Function Examples

Input Output Examples

Template Examples

Exception Handling Examples

STL Examples

Miscellaneous Examples

Conclusion

Getting started with C++

C++ versions

Build a C++ program

Benefits of using IDE

Code portability